How Banda Singh Bahadur founded – and defended – the first Sikh empire against the Mughals

The Battle of Malerkotla, fought by the Karora Singhia Misl against Ahmad Shah Durrani, proved disastrous and resulted in the martyrdom of thousands of Sikh children, women, and elderly people, reflecting the brutal resistance offered by the Sikhs against repeated external invasions.

Following the raid of Sirhind in 1764, Baghel Singh’s ambitions carried Sikh influence beyond the borders of Punjab, as he sought to secure territories in the cis-Yamuna regions and collect tribute from areas such as Meerut and from the Nawabs of Awadh. He redistributed land to farmers and abolished the zamindari system, aiming to restore dignity and self-respect to the common people. These actions helped reduce corruption and made him widely popular among the general population.

Banda Singh Bahadur’s early successes provoked a fierce response from the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah, who mobilised a large force to suppress the uprising, leading to a series of confrontations. Although Banda Singh initially evaded capture, his forces were eventually overwhelmed, and the Mughal army laid siege to his fort at Lohgarh with a massive force. Banda Singh Bahadur’s efforts nonetheless established the military strength of the Sikhs and laid foundations that later culminated in the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh in the early 19th century. His leadership transformed the political landscape of Punjab and inspired future generations to fight for their rights and freedoms.

Banda Singh Bahadur was ultimately captured at Gurdas Nangal in December 1715 and imprisoned along with many other Sikhs, who were kept in chains. A procession escorted the captives to Delhi, reportedly displaying over seven hundred prisoners, with numerous severed heads mounted on spears and carts filled with heads to instil fear among the populace. Once imprisoned in Delhi, the Sikhs were pressured to embrace Islam, and upon their steadfast refusal, orders were issued for their execution. Around one hundred Sikhs were publicly executed each day over the course of about a week. After several months of harsh imprisonment, Banda Singh Bahadur was brutally tortured and executed in June 1716.

In 1716, the Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar issued an edict ordering Sikhs to convert to Islam or face death, aiming to dismantle Sikh power and eradicate the community. A bounty was placed on Sikh heads, leading to widespread killings. Many Sikhs were executed, while some who had joined the movement for personal gain renounced the faith and returned to Hinduism. Others, fearful of death, avoided adopting the outward symbols of Sikh identity and had not undergone baptism instituted by the tenth Guru.

In the years that followed, official pressure gradually eased, allowing Sikhs to return to their villages and gurdwaras, many of which had been maintained by the Udasis during the period of persecution. Under the guidance of Mata Sundari, Bhai Mani Singh emerged as the Jathedar of Harmandir Sahib and worked to unite the fractured Sikh factions. Over time, the Bandai Khalsa declined in prominence. Bhai Mani Singh later met a brutal death in Amritsar, where he was executed by the Mughal authorities.

In 1726, Abdus Samad Khan was transferred to Multan, and his son Zakaria Khan assumed control of Lahore. That same year, the Sikh leader Tarra Singh of Wan was killed along with his 26 followers when Zakaria Khan dispatched a strong force against them. Although the Mughal administration claimed that Sikh resistance had been eliminated, it was widely known that many Sikhs survived and continued their struggle. Guerrilla warfare became the primary strategy, countering the numerical superiority of Mughal forces through targeted attacks.

The Sikhs focused on Mughal supply caravans, significantly disrupting government revenue for several years. Mughal authorities found it difficult to suppress these elusive fighters, who evaded capture by retreating into forests and remote hideouts. During this period, Jahan Khan, an Afghan general under Ahmad Shah Abdali, launched a major assault on Amritsar with a large army. Facing overwhelming numbers, the Sikhs withdrew into the forests. The fort of Ram Rauni was destroyed, Harmandir Sahib was damaged, and the sacred Sarovar was desecrated with debris and carcasses. Despite these conditions, Baba Deep Singh made a legendary stand, fighting through Afghan forces in an attempt to reach Harmandir Sahib.

Adina Beg’s refusal to pay taxes led to his dismissal by the Governor, who appointed a new faujdar in his place. These circumstances compelled Adina Beg to seek help from the Sikhs, and the Sikhs seized this opportunity to weaken the government. They engaged the opposing army, resulting in the death of one commander and the desertion of the others. The Sikhs later launched an offensive on Jalandhar, establishing control over the region between the Sutlej and Beas rivers, known as the Doaba. Instead of hiding in forests, they began to take control of towns.

The Sikhs expanded their territories, collecting revenue from the regions they governed. In 1758, allied with the Marathas, they conquered Lahore and captured Afghan soldiers responsible for defiling the Amrit Sarovar. These soldiers were forced to clean the holy water, after which they were sent home with a warning.

In October 1759, Ahmad Shah Abdali returned to ravage Delhi but faced fierce resistance from the Sikhs, who killed over 2,000 of his troops. Rather than engaging further with the Sikhs, he hastily proceeded towards Delhi. The Khalsa sought to assert their authority by collecting taxes from Lahore. The Governor, unwilling to confront them, initially closed the city gates, but after a week-long siege, he agreed to pay thirty thousand rupees to the Sikhs.

In 1761, as Abdali returned from Delhi laden with gold and over 2,000 captured women intended for sale in Kabul, the Sikhs ambushed his forces near the Beas River. They successfully liberated the captured women, and the Sikhs seized Lahore following Abdali’s return to Kabul in September 1761.

Coins were later minted by the Khalsa bearing the name of Guru Nanak, helping them gain the support of the local population as rulers. In recognition of his leadership and role as Governor of Lahore, the title “Sultan-ul-Kaum” was bestowed upon Jassa Singh Ahluwalia.

Excerpted with permission from When the Sikhs Conquered Delhi: How the Sikhs Defeated the Mughals, Arvinder S Brara, Rupa Publications.