How Mumbai’s golden jackals endure

In the metropolis of Mumbai, as urbanisation accelerates and encroaches on the city’s natural habitats, golden jackals – which inhabit the city’s mangrove ecosystem – seem to be battling for space, prey, and survival.

Yet, against all odds, they endure, finds a 2024 study conducted by the Wildlife Conservation Society-India, in partnership with the Mangrove and Marine Biodiversity Conservation Foundation. “Though we do not know their [jackals] exact numbers, we observed pups of various ages during our two-month survey, suggesting that breeding occurs year-round,” says Nikit Surve, research manager at Wildlife Conservation Society-India and one of the authors of the study. “Even in smaller packs, we found pups and lactating females, which is a strong indicator of a healthy, active breeding population – not a stagnant one.”

However, new threats loom on the horizon, such as hybridisation with feral dogs and loss of contiguous mangrove habitat.

Hide and seek

In India, the golden jackal inhabits a wide range of environments, including most protected areas, as well as semi-urban and rural landscapes, but is absent from the high-altitude regions of the Himalayas. Though classified as a species of Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, a recent amendment to the Wildlife (Protection) Act in 2022 has elevated the golden jackal’s status in India, granting it the highest level of legal protection as a Schedule I species.

According to the study, golden jackals were once widespread throughout Mumbai. Some records from 1904-1914 indicate their presence in southern parts of the city, but urban expansion has forced these creatures into fragmented habitats. They now occupy a unique niche within the city’s mangroves, thriving as scavengers and apex predators.

“Historically, the jackals were seen in areas like Marine Lines and Charni Road (in southern Mumbai). Today, their southernmost habitat is limited to the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (in the eastern suburbs of Mumbai), while thriving populations are found in the mangrove belts of Gorai, Manori (in north Mumbai) and Vashi,” says Surve.

To study how the species has adapted, the researchers set up camera traps at 68 strategic locations in the different ranges of the Mumbai Mangrove Conservation Unit for a total of 938 nights. They gathered about 2,950 independent capture events of which 790 featured golden jackals, far outnumbering sightings of other wild species like the Indian grey mongoose (92) and jungle cat (28).

Human activity dominated the mangrove landscape, accounting for 1,666 captures, and there were also 374 captures of free-ranging dogs. Despite these disturbances, the jackals exhibited remarkable adaptability. “Their activity was majorly nocturnal, and peaked during dawn and dusk, times when human presence waned, demonstrating a sophisticated temporal avoidance of their human neighbours,” says Surve.

The survey also found many interactions between domestic dogs and golden jackals. But in some places, they were active at different times, though still sharing the same spaces.

Diet preferences

The mangroves provide a diverse diet range for golden jackals. An analysis of 38 scat samples revealed that their diet consisted of mammalian remains (31.4%), vegetative matter (26.7%), birds (14.3%) and even the occasional crabs, fish, and snakes. Alarmingly, traces of plastic (3%) were also found.

However, this finding comes with caveats. Although the scat was visually identified as jackal, some samples could belong to dogs. Distinguishing between jackal and dog scat poses a significant challenge due to their overlapping diets. So, the researchers have called for further research, including genetic analysis, to verify the scat samples.

Overall, as per the study, Mumbai’s jackals seem to be in good health, sustaining themselves on a typical scavenger diet. “We’ve encountered entire cow carcasses in the mangroves, which jackals readily scavenge. While plastic has been detected, it’s a common occurrence among scavengers in the area,” says Surve.

Interestingly, this diet adaptability was also found in another research paper, published this year. It found that golden jackals in Delhi’s Ridge Forest also demonstrated highly opportunistic feeding behaviours. In addition to natural prey such as birds, rodents, and insects, they consume human-provided items like bananas, bread, chapatis, chickpeas, and butchered remains.

“Notably, jackal pups are often fed regurgitated anthropogenic food – such as chapatis and bananas – by breeding pairs and helpers. This reliance on human-provided resources highlights their remarkable adaptability. Such traits may be critical for the survival and success of species in urbanised environments, ensuring access to vital resources that sustain both adult jackals and their young,” says Ajay Immanuel Gonji, from the School of Human Ecology at the Dr BR Ambedkar University Delhi, and one of the study’s researchers.

Challenges of coexistence

Still, life in the mangroves of Mumbai is fraught with challenges. With camera traps revealing an overlap between jackals and free-ranging dogs, this cohabitation raises the spectre of disease transmission. In October, the first record of rabies infection in jackals was confirmed from samples of five golden jackals, which had died separately within a month.

“While there’s no definitive evidence of a population-wide outbreak, more in-depth methods are required when it comes to studying diseases, including blood sample collection and cultures. At the moment, we don’t know what’s happening,” says Surve.

Hybridisation is another looming threat. Evidence from camera traps hints at the presence of hybrid individuals. If true, this could dilute the genetic purity of the golden jackal, impacting its ecological role and adaptability.

A fragile balance

The golden jackals of Mumbai remain vital to the city’s ecological balance. They act as natural waste managers, controlling prey populations and cleaning up organic debris. Yet, their survival is heavily reliant on the preservation of contiguous mangrove patches. Fragmentation of these habitats could push these resilient predators toward local extinction.

The findings of the survey emphasised this fragility, with the Thane Creek Flamingo Sanctuary showing the highest Relative Abundance Index for golden jackals, while areas like the Thane range of the Mumbai Mangrove Conservation Unit reported the lowest. Notably, the Thane range also had an almost equal Relative Abundance Index for humans and jackals, highlighting the intense competition for space.

Jackals are protected under Schedule 1 of India’s Wild Life Protection Act, which gives it the highest level of protection, including from poaching, killing, and trading. However, much more remains to be done in terms of conservation of the species across landscapes, note researchers.

“Developing effective conservation strategies in urban environments poses unique challenges. Conventional conservation biology, with its focus on pristine habitats and protected areas, often falls short in addressing the complexities of urban ecosystems. These landscapes require a reimagined framework, one that recognises urban spaces as adaptive frontiers of conservation where species evolve and thrive under novel conditions,” says Gonji.

Community engagement plays a crucial role in fostering coexistence. Social interviews with local residents in the Mumbai survey revealed mixed perceptions of jackals. Changing these perceptions is key to ensuring that humans and jackals can share this shrinking urban wilderness.

The Delhi research paper emphasises the need to rethink urban nature and planning. “We must move beyond traditional “green” constructs and embrace innovative approaches that integrate urban wildlife habitats. This includes designing landscapes with porosity – allowing wildlife movement – and creating inviolate pockets that serve as refuges. Such strategies can support genetic diversity and enhance species’ resilience in rapidly urbanising areas,” says Gonji.

This article was first published on Mongabay.